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Department of Psychology Psychopathology and Clinical Intervention

Verdingkinder (Indentured child laborers), Welfare and coercion

Historical overview: Verdingkinder

Verdingender: a brief historical overview

Until 1981, children and adolescents in Switzerland were affected by coercive social measures and out-of-home placements (CSMP). At the time, Swiss local authorities were entitled to enforce welfare measures. They used such power to arbitrarily separate children from their parents in response to social norm violations such as single motherhood, migrant/gipsy origin, or extreme poverty (Leuenberger & Seglias, 2008). Although no exact number of children and adolescents affected by these measures is known, estimations point to tens of thousands of individuals (Federal Office of Justice, 2020). In the context of state and social recognition of this chapter of Swiss history, affected individuals have come forward with reports of extreme forms of child maltreatment: different types of abuse, neglect and forced labour were facilitated by these enforced welfare measures (Federal Office of Justice, 2020) in a time were child labour was common in the country and acceptable way to teach children about the value of hard work for the development of society. These children were known as Verdingkinder (relinquished children) (Leuenberger & Seglias, 2008).

Project Description

The project: Differential ageing trajectories in hig-risk individuals with past experiences of early adversity

The Department of Psychology of the University of Zürich conducted a group of studies in the context of the National Research Project 76 (NRP76) "Welfare and Coercion – Past, present and future". The goal was to examine the long-term consequences of early-life adversity in a high-risk sample of older individuals institutionalized or otherwise administratively placed in care in their childhood or adolescence. Using different methodological approaches and considering multiple actors, the results point to positive and negative long-term outcomes for people who experienced adversities in childhood. Additionally, it highlights protective factors that promote resilience and could contribute to a more appropriate approach for this population.

For more information on the NRP76 and the project: nfp76

Key Topics

  • Mental impairments and disorders: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and other
  • Accelerated aging, cognitive impairment
  • Motivational changes during life-span
  • Resilience
  • Neuro-/biopsychological results

The studies

The project comprised three studies:

  • The main study investigated the physical and mental health of former victims of compulsory social measures and out-of-home placements and compared these with the health of non-affected persons of the same age.
  • Sub-study I focused on former victims of institutional child abuse in Ireland to make an international comparison.
  • Sub-study II focused on the perspective of former caregivers who worked with children affected by coercive welfare measures and out-of-home placements.


Main Study

The study examined outcomes and trajectories of psychological and physical health over time, as well as related vulnerability and resilience factors in a Swiss cohort of persons aged 50 years and older who were affected by CSMP and an age-matched control sample. A questionnaire survey assessed 257 participants (n = 132 risk group and n = 125 control group) in the following manner: Two assessments were conducted at the beginning of the study, followed by a 21-month wait period, during which the participants were contacted every three months for a short telephone survey. After that, two final assessments were conducted for the follow-up. Results showed that the risk sample presented more internalizing mental disorders and experienced more stressful situations during their life compared to the control group. However, 30% of the sample did not present any type of mental disorder (compared to 42% of the control group). The risk group also presented less favourable coping and emotion regulation strategies. These results support the idea of long-term negative outcomes for people who experience early life adversities.

For more details on the results of the main study, please consult the following publications:

  • Maercker, A., Bernays, F., Rohner, S. L., & Thoma, M. V. (2022). A cascade model of complex posttraumatic stress disorder centered on childhood trauma and maltreatment, attachment, and socio-interpersonal factors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 35(2), 446-460. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22756
  • Pfluger, V., Rohner, S. L., Eising, C. M., Maercker, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2022). Internalizing mental health disorders and emotion regulation: A comparative and mediational study of older adults with and without a history of complex trauma exposure. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 820345. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820345
  • Eising, C. M., Völkle, M. C., Rohner, S. L., Maercker, A. & Thoma, M. V. (2021). Lifetime post-traumatic stress disorder in older individuals with a history of institutional upbringing in childhood: The role of social acknowledgement and stressful life events. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1915578. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1915578
  • Pfluger, V., Rohner, S. L., Eising, C. M., Maercker, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2021). Associations between complex trauma exposure in childhood/adolescence and psychopathology in older age: The role of stress coping and coping self-perception. Journal of Child and Adolescence Trauma. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-021-00419-0
  • Thoma, M. V., Bernays, F., Eising, C. M., Maercker, A., & Rohner, S. L. (2021). Child maltreatment, lifetime trauma, and mental health in Swiss older survivors of enforced child welfare practices: Investigating the mediating role of self-esteem and self-compassion. Child Abuse & Neglect, 113, 104925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104925
  • Thoma, M. V., Bernays, F., Eising, C. M., Pfluger, V., & Rohner, S. L. (2021). Health, stress, and well-being in Swiss adult survivors of child welfare practices and child labor: Investigating the mediating role of socio-economic factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 111, 104769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104769
  • Thoma, M. V., Bernays, F., Pfluger, V., Eising, C. M., & Rohner, S. L. (2022). An exploratory comparison of resilience profiles of Swiss older adult survivors of child welfare-related maltreatment and controls. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 29(3), 1059-1067. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2691
  • Thoma, M. V., Höltge, J., Eising, C. M., Pfluger, V., & Rohner, S. L. (2020). Resilience and stress in later life: A network analysis approach depicting complex interactions of resilience resources and stress-related risk factors in older adults. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 580969. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.580969


Sub-study I

The study examined the coping strategies and resilience of older people in Ireland who experienced (institutional) child abuse and neglect. A questionnaire survey of 532 people assessed aversive childhood experiences, stress, resilience, health and well-being. In addition, interviews were conducted with victims of institutional (N=17) and intra-familial (N=12) maltreatment to gather detailed information about their childhood and present experiences. The results showed that older people who experienced adversities in childhood have an increased risk of mental illness and poor well-being (e.g., symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression/anxiety, insomnia). However, factors associated with resilience were also identified: Strength of character, perspective taking, motivation to prosocial behaviours, high levels of education and use of formal services to promote education. These findings suggest that resilience is not only a personality trait but also a learnable skill fostered by the environment.

For more details on the results of the main study, please consult the following publications:

  • Rohner, S. L., Bernays, F., Maercker, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2022). Salutary mechanisms in the relationship between stress and health: The mediating and moderating roles of Sense of Coherence—Revised. Stress & Health, 38(2), 388-401. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3093
  • Mc Gee, S. L., Carr, A., Maercker, A. & Thoma, M. V. (2020). “Some call it resilience": A profile of dynamic resilience-related factors in older adult survivors of childhood institutional adversity and maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 107, 104565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104565  
  • Rohner, S. L., Salas Castillo, A. N., Carr, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2022). Childhood adversity and later life prosocial behavior: A qualitative comparative study of Irish older adult survivors. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-222742
  • Rohner, S. L., Salas Castillo, A. N., Michel, J., Maercker, A., Carr, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2023). A socio-interpersonal perspective on the disclosure of childhood adversity: A qualitative comparative approach in Irish survivors. Journal of Family Trauma, Child Custody & Child Development, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/26904586.2023.2177234
  • Rohner, S. L., Bernays, F., Maercker, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2022). Salutary mechanisms in the relationship between stress and health: The mediating and moderating roles of Sense of Coherence-Revised. Stress and health: journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 38(2), 388–401. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3093


Sub-study II

In an effort to better understand the impact of the CSMP, 12 caregivers were interviewed about their perceptions and experiences in the care system. As a result, relevant intrapersonal, interpersonal, and external factors were identified: Intrapersonal factors that could influence the care and development of the children were the children's characteristics and behaviours (e.g., gender, age) and their coping strategies (e.g., creativity, imagination and acting out). Interpersonal factors that could hinder the children's development were the caregivers' negative attitudes and lack of emotional and social support. Finally, external factors such as lack of resources in the care system, poor working conditions for the caregivers, indifference on the part of the authorities, and stigmatization and discrimination against the children in care might have hindered the resilient development of the children. On the other hand, potential protective factors were also identified, including external support and the provision of resources, caregivers' micro-resistance, social recognition through public debate and subsequent improvements in the care system.

Highlights summary (results)

The results of these studies emphasize different aspects to consider regarding the relationship between childhood adversities and older age:

  • The long-term vulnerability of people affected by childhood adversities: people affected by childhood adversities are significantly more likely to develop internalizing mental disorders and experience negative effects on emotion regulation skills than a control group.
  • Resilience is a learnable skill that the environment can foster. Potentially modifiable resilience factors are, for instance: self-esteem, financial situation, coping strategies, and emotion regulation skills
  • Additional factors that promote resilience were identified: a sense of coherence, self-efficacy, optimism, social support, resource availability, and social recognition.
  • The importance of emotion regulation strategies: some strategies, such as reappraisal and suppression, mediate between adverse childhood experiences and internalizing mental disorders and should be considered when approaching this population.

Additional selected publications

  • Maercker, A. Krammer, S. & Simmen-Janevska, K. (2014). Psychische Folgestörungen im Alter. In: Itinera 36 - Fürsorge und Zwang: Fremdplatzierung von Kindern und Jugendlichen in der Schweiz 1850-1980. Basel, Schwabe, S. 373-384. ZORA
  • Kuhlman, K.R., Maercker, A., Bachem, R., Simmen-Janevska, K. & Burri, A. (2013). Developmental and contextual factors in severe childhood trauma in geriatric depression: the sample case of former indentured child laborers. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37, 969-978. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.04.013 ZORA
  • Burri, A., Maercker, A., Krammer, S. & Simmen-Janevska, K. (2013). Childhood trauma and PTSD symptoms increase the risk of cognitive impairment in a sample of former indentured child laborers in old age. PLOSone, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057826. ZORA
  • Simmen-Janevska, K., Horn, A. B., Krammer, S., & Maercker, A. (2014). Traumata, Entwicklungsperioden und motivationale Fähigkeiten bei Schweizer Verdingkindern im Alter. Zeitschrift für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, 60, 146-161. ZORA
  • Maercker, A., Burri, A. & Hilpert, P. (2015). Childhood trauma and resilience in old age: Applying a context model of resilience to a sample of former indentured child laborers. Aging & Mental Health doi: 10.1080/13607863.2015.1033677ZORA
  • Simmen-Janevska, K., Forstmeier, S., Krammer, S. & Maercker, A. (2015). Does trauma impair self-control? Differences in delaying gratification between former indentured child laborers and non-traumatized controls. Violence and Victims, 30, 1068-1081. ZORA
  • Krammer, S., Kleim, B., Simmen-Janevska, K. & Maercker, A. (2015). Childhood trauma and complex PTSD symptoms in older adults: A study on direct effects and social-interpersonal factors as potential mediators. Journal of Trauma and Disscociation. doi: 10.1080/15299732.2014.991861. ZORA
  • Rechsteiner, K., Burri, A. & Maercker, A. (2015). Sexual Behavior and Concerns in a Sample of Elderly, Former Indentured Swiss Child Laborers. Sexual Medicine, 3, 311-320ZORA
  • Küffer, A. L., Thoma, M. V,, & Maercker, A. (2016). Transgenerational aspects of former Swiss child laborers: Do second generations suffer from their parents' adverse early-life experiences? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7, 30804. ZORA